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For buildings and structures whose greatest horizontal or vertical dimension exceeds 50 m ft a wind speed of 15 s averaging time is used. A similar procedure is also adopted for the analysis of a series of annual maximum mean hourly wind speeds. However, in order to prepare a map of extreme values, the data must be homogeneous and refer to a standard datum level in a standard site. Extreme values for other sites and at other levels may then be estimated by the use of factors.

The maximum 3-second gust speed likely to be exceeded on the average only once in 50 years was chosen because 1 of the case for selecting the 3-second gust given above, and 2 the average lifetime of most buildings covered in the Code is near 50 years. It should be noted that a value likely to be exceeded on the average only once in 50 years also has a probability of 0. An attempt has been made to enable the designer to choose speeds of different return periods by the use of suitable factors.

Appendix C A statistical factor S3 Factor S3 is based on statistical concepts and this appendix shows how the factor has been computed from the data and describes some of the uses.

Therefore, there is only a probability of 0. Factor S3 has been obtained by selecting values of P and N, solving the equation for T and calculating values xT, the wind speed of return period T, for all stations in the United Kingdom where observations are available. For each pair of values of P and N the values of S3 at places in the United Kingdom showed little variation with site. Therefore the mean of S3 values at all places was taken for each pair of P and N, and some of them are plotted in Figure 2.

On this diagram N is called the exposure period and S3 the factor. The probability levels are the values of P. The factor S3 provides the designer with greater flexibility in choice of wind speed without referring to several different maps. For the calculation of wind loads during construction or for calculation of wind loads on temporary structures whose probable life is short, wind speeds may be reduced using factor S3.

Therefore there is a probability of 0. Because normally a probability level of 0. The designer may also use Figure 2 to estimate wind loads which would result from choosing a different return period for the basic speed. For exposure periods greater than 10 years, with probability level equal to 0. The effect of multiplying a map speed by any given factor can be estimated in terms of return period. From Figure 2 the once in years speed is roughly 1.

The effect of greater safety can also be assessed. Suppose that, exceptionally, a probability level of 0. Although it cannot be seen from the diagram the application of this factor converts the once in 50 years wind to a once in 4 years wind. The probability that such a wind will be exceeded in any one year is 0. It should be remembered that wind speeds having such low values of probability associated with them cannot be estimated satisfactorily from a record of even 50 years data and that there may be other factors which affect the value of such an extreme.

For these reasons the use of probability levels other than 0. When the wind load for a selected wind speed has been calculated it is common practice to apply a load or safety factor specified in other Codes of Practice. If it is assumed that the effect of this load factor is to increase the return period of the wind speed only, then the resulting change in the return period can be calculated from Figure 2. Suppose a load factor of 1. Reference to Figure 2 will show that such an increase of wind speed, which would have been brought about by the use of a factor of 1.

The extent of this effect on gust wind speeds, as defined for the purposes of this Code by the topography factor S1 in 5. In such cases S1 should be determined from D. Where the local topography is not significant, as defined in D. All relevant wind directions should be considered. Z is the effective height of the feature see Figure 4.

The influence of the feature should be considered to extend 1. If not, then the feature should be treated as a hill or ridge see Figure 4. In undulating terrain it is often not possible to decide whether the local topography of the site is significant in terms of wind flow. NOTE 1 Where the downward slope of a hill or ridge is greater than 0. Values of s from Figure 6 should be used as upper bound values. NOTE 2 No differentiation is made in deriving S1, between a three dimensional hill and a two dimensional ridge.

Open doors, windows or ventilators on the windward side of a building will increase air pressure inside the building and this will increase the loading on those points of the roof and walls that are subjected to external suction see Figure 7 , and may affect the pressure on floors.

Figure 8 — Internal pressure coefficient 2 In practice, conditions are generally not so simple. Most buildings have some permeability on each face, through windows, ventilation louvres, leakage gaps around doors and windows and to some extent through the cladding itself; and if there are chimneys, these can provide a low-resistance path for air flow. Permeability in this context is measured by the total area of such openings in a face. The problem is to determine the resulting internal balance of all the contributing leakage points for all critical wind directions, and, for design purposes, to assess the worst possible combination of external and internal pressures that may be developed on each wall or roof unit.

The following examples indicate approximately the values of Cpi that apply to a building with a reasonably open interior plan and are to be applied to the same values of q as the building in which they occur.

If the interior is divided by relatively impermeable partitions the pressure difference between windward and leeward faces of the building will be broken down in steps, and will impose loads on the partitions. As a guide it can be said that the typical permeability of a house or office block with all windows nominally closed is in the range of 0. Where it is not possible, or is not considered justified, to estimate the value of Cpi for a particular case, the coefficient should be based on one of the following paragraphs for any determination of wall or roof loading.

The extreme conditions should be determined for the various wind directions that give rise to critical loadings and it should be noted that especially severe internal pressures may be developed if a dominant opening is located in a region of high local external pressure. There is a further complication in a wall or roof element that comprises several layers. For example, a roof may be boarded and felted and covered with tiles.

The pressure difference between outside and inside will then be broken down into steps, across each layer; these steps will depend on the relative permeability of the various layers and the access of air to the spaces between them.

Each case needs careful study to ensure that the whole of the wind load is not accidentally transferred to a single membrane such as a thin metal sheet that may not be designed to carry it.

Control of internal pressure. The value of Cpi can sometimes be limited or controlled to advantage by the deliberate distribution of permeability in the walls and roof or by the deliberate provision of a venting device that can serve as a dominant opening at a position having a suitable external pressure coefficient.

An example of such an application is a ridge ventilator on a low pitch roof which, under all directions of wind, will reduce the uplift force on the roof. This appendix provides general guidance on icing conditions within the limitations set out below.

In the discussion mean speeds are given because it is the build-up of ice that is important. An estimate of the maximum gust speed when the ice load has been established can be made by multiplying the appropriate mean speed by 1. The conditions leading to and after ice formation are not likely to be the same as those in which extreme gusts occur, so, if extreme gusts calculated by the method described in 5 are used to compute wind loads on iced structures an overestimate will be produced.

Also, in strong winds ice will be blown off the structure and this may induce vibrations. No attempt has been made to discuss these vibration effects. Occasionally two or perhaps all three types may occur simultaneously or in sequence and this possibility is discussed in F.

The wind forces or movements of the structure can be sufficiently strong to cause lumps of an otherwise even coating of ice to break off. Although, throughout the past 30 years or so, there have been reports of ice deposits in the meterological literature, most of the known occasions have been descriptively but not quantitatively analysed and as a result reliable statistics cannot be compiled.

This appendix will, therefore, necessarily be fragmentary. The precipitation is known as freezing rain or freezing drizzle. Reports of freezing precipitation are often localized and occur once every few years in some parts of the country, being mainly confined to England and Wales.

The most widespread glazed frost of recent years, perhaps of this century, occurred in January, , and is described by Brooks and Douglas6. They reported deposits of 1 g of ice on a spray of beech twigs weighing g and deposits of 50 mm diameter on telegraph wires. Another widespread glazed frost occurred between 11 and 15 March, , but on this occasion the thickness of the deposit was generally less well reported.

Vertical surfaces exposed to freezing precipitation are generally coated with ice on the side facing the wind. If the surface is flat and broad e. If the surface is curved and relatively narrow laterally e. Thicknesses of up to 50 mm have been observed. If the surface is markedly curved and very narrow e. If a cable or wire is at an angle to the vertical or if it is horizontal, the asymmetry of the load may induce a twisting moment.

The coating of ice may then exhibit spiral effects with a very uneven surface but the absence of spirals cannot be taken to imply that twisting has not taken place. Glazed frost adheres strongly to most metallic, mineral or organic surfaces and is relatively dense; in the absence of measurements it must be assumed that the density is 0. The glazed frost of January, One is a steady situation in East or South-East winds with a narrow band of warm air overlying a very cold surface layer of air and with very cold air above so that snow falling from above is melted in the warm layer and then the drops or droplets are supercooled as they pass through the cooler underlying layer.

This situation may persist for days and is mainly reported in England and Wales. The glazed frosts of January, , March, , and March, , are typical examples in which deposits of 50 mm or so were recorded on trees, cables and house sides.

More frequently, the meterological conditions are met for only a short time after a cold spell. Such an occasion was reported on 4 March, Because the deposit is formed in a short period of rain, thicknesses of 25 mm or so are unlikely to be exceeded except on rare occasions.

While no detailed observations are available it is reasonable to assume that temperature and precipitation conditions at heights up to m or so above ground will not vary greatly from conditions at the surface. However, it may also be assumed that wind speeds will increase with height according to a power law with exponent 0.